PU physics syllabus ( pokhara university )

1.MECHANICAL OSCILLATION	v  Introduction and equation of simple harmonic motion v  Energy in simple harmonic motion v  Oscillation of mass-spring system v  Compound pendulum
2. WAVE  MOTION	v  Introduction of wave v  Wave velocity and partical velocity v  Types of waves v  Equation v  Energy v  Power v  Intensity of plane progressive wave v  Standing wave v  resonance
3. Acoustics	v  Reverberation of sound v  Absorption coefficient v  Sabine’s formula introduction v  Production v  Applications of ultra sound
3. Physical optics	A.      Interference: v  introduction v  Coherent sources v  Interference in thin films due to reflected and transmitted light v  Newton’s ring B.      Diffraction: v  Introduction v  Fraunhoffer diffraction at single slit and double slit v  Diffraction grating C.      Polarization : v  Introduction v  Double refraction v  Nicol prism v  Optical activity v  Specific rotation v  Wave plates
5. LASER AND FIBER OPTICS	v  Introduction of laser v  Spontaneous and stimulated emission v  Optical pumping v  He-Ne laser v  Ruby laser v  Use of laser v  Propagation of light waves v  Types of optical fiber v  Application of optical fiber
6. ELECTROSTATICS	v  Electric charge v  Electric force v  Electric flux v  Electric potential v  Gauss law and its application v  Electric field intensity v  Electric potential due to dipole v  Electric potential due to quadrupole v  Capacitors v  Electrostatic potential energy v  Dielectrics v  Gauss law charging and discharging of capacitor
7. ELECTRICITY AND  MAGNETISM	v  Electric current v  Resistance v  Resistivity v  Conductivity v  Atomic view of resistivity v  Magnetic field v  Magnetic force v  Lorentz force v  Hall effects v  Biot and savart laws and its application v  Force between two parallel conductors v  Ampere’s circuital law and its application v  Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction v  Self induction R-L circuit v  Energy stored in magnetic field v  Magnetic energy density
8. ELECTROMAGNETISM	v  LC oscillation v  Damped oscillation v  Forced oscillation v  Resonance v  Maxwell’s equation and displacement current v  Wave equations in free space v  Continuity equation v  E and B fields v  Pointing vector v  Radiation pressure
9. PHOTON AND MATTER WAVES	v  Photon v  Group velocity and phase velocity v  De-broglie wavelength v  Schrodinger wave equation v  One dimensional potential well v  Tunneling effects
10. SEMICONDUCTOR AND SUPER CONDUCTIVITY	v  Introduction v  Types of semi conductors v  Doping v  P-N junction v  Metal –semiconductor junction v  Junction breakdown v  Junction capacitance v  Electrical conduction in metals v  Insulators v  Semiconductor according to band theory of solids v  Introduction to superconductor

                                                             prepared by

                                                arjunsharmapoudel82@gmail.com

COMPUTER GRAPHICS

                               COMPUTER GRAPHICS 

INTRODUCTION :

                                 Graphics means representing any information in the form of graphs . Graphics is used in almost all types of computers. All the operating systems there days make the use of computer graphics. As for beginners , in C programming here we only dealing with command line interface . C also provides facility of graphics under the header file graphics.h  . C graphics has two capabilities -text handling and regular graphics .

1. Text mode-graphics functions 

It is possible to display or capture only text in terms of ASCII value. The text mode functions are concerned with placing text in certain areas of screen . These functions can work with any monitor and adapter .The text mode can be displayed in two forms as 25 rows and 80 columns and vice versa . some of text mode functions are :

• Windows()
• Cputs()
• clrscr()
• putch()
• Gotoxy 

2. Graphics mode ()

       This mode supports both text as well as graphics. The graphics mode depends upon the picture elements. some function of it are as follow:

• Initgraph()
• Closegraph()
• circle()
• Arc()

FUNCTION

                                    FUNCTION

C programming is a collection of function .Function is block of code or statement to perform a particular task . In every program, there exists at least a single function called as main function i.e main( ) . Main( ) function executes the program automatically.

TYPE OF FUNCTION :

1) library function :  printf ( );

                                  scanf( );

                                                   pow( );

                                  sqrt ( );

2)User defined function : add (a,b);

                                         factorial (n);

                                         fibonacci (n);

COMPONENT OF FUNCTION :

1. Function prototype / function declaration
2. Function call
3. Function definition

     

CATEGORY OF FUNCTION :

1. No return type with argumnets
2. No return type with no arguments
3. Return type with no arguments
4. Return type with arguments

Recursive function :

The function calling itself  is called recursive function. Recursion is the process through which a function calls itself repeatedly until some specified condition is satisfied .

 For recursive function, following two condition must be satisfied .

1.  The problem must be defined or written in terms of previous result .
2. There must be stopping condition.

 

POINTER

                                      POINTER

Pointer is a special variable that holds the address of another variable.

Declaration of pointer :

            syntax: datatype * pointername ;

example : int * p ;

                float * ptr ;

  

A pointer always meant to hold the address not an ordinary variable .

'*' is called value at address operator .

Normal variable provides direction access to their own values whereas pointer provides indirect access to the value of variable whose address it stores.

BAD POINTER : 

When a pointer is first declared , it does not contain a valid address . The pointer is uninitialized or bad pointer.

Each pointer must be assigned  a valid address before it can support pointer operations. 

Before that pointer is bad and shouldnot be used .

Null pointer :

Pointer that does not point any value.

Void pointer :

It is syntatically incorrect to assign the address of any data type variable to any other data type variable.

A void pointer is a special kind of pointer that can hold address of a variable of any data type .

Syntax : void * pointername ;

 

The keyword  void represents that this pointer donot have any type associated with it and type assignment must be used to change void pointer to a concrete data type we refer .

Difference between compiler and interpreter is:

The difference between compiler and interpreter is :

  

COMPILER	INTERPRETER
1)      A compiler translate the entire source program into object program in a single attempt and then only object program is executed.	1)      An interpreter translates one program instructions at a time.
2)      Compiler is faster than interpreter ( 5 to 25 times faster than interpreter )	2)  Interpreter  is slower than compiler
3)      Compiler is complex program i.e larger than of interpreter	3) Interpreter is simple program i.e smaller than that of compiler.
4)      Compared to interpreter  , developing compiler is difficult .	4)              4)  Compared  to  compiler , developing interpreter is easier.
5)      It occupies more memory because compiler is big and complex .	5) It occupies less memory as it is small and  simpler  than compiler
6)      Compiler make a bit difficult and slower to detect and correct syntax error.	6) Interpreter easily detects and reports the    error at each line .
7)      The compiled program (called object code) is permanently saved in hard disk for further use, program need not to be recompiled for execution next time.	7) Translation provided by interpreters is not preserved so , the program needs retranslation every time for execution.
8)       Examples : c, c++, FORTAN	8)      Example : QBASIC , PERL

Artificial Intelligence (AI)

                             Artificial  Intelligence 

Artificial intelligence (AI) is a term that encompasses many definitions. Most experts agree that AI is concerned with two basic ideas. First ,it involves studying the thought process of humans; second ,it deals with representing those processes via machines (computer,robots and so on).One well publicized definition of AI is "behavior by a machine that ,if performed by a human being , would be called intelligent." The three objectives of artificial intelligence are:

1.  to make machines smarter 
2. to understand what intelligence is
3. to make machines more useful.

⤋

What is the meaning of the term intelligent behaviour ? several capabilities are considered to be signs of intelligence :

• Making sense of ambiguous or contradictory messages
• Learning or understanding from experience
• Responding quickly and successfully to a new situation 
• Using reasoning to solve problems and direct actions effectively
• Dealing with complex situations
• Understanding and inferring in ordinary ,rational ways
• Applying knowledge to manipulate the environment 
• Recognizing the relative importance of different elements in a situation .

                                                              

                                                           provided by 

                                                         Arjun sharma Poudel

                                                    Arjunsharmapoudel82@gmail.com

                                                     

E-commerce ( Electronic commerce)

                               E-commerce ( Electronic commerce)

E-commerce (EC) is the buying ,selling and exchanging of goods ,services and information or the transmitting of funds or data ,over an electronic network ,primarily the internet. It covers a range of different types of businesses ,from consumer based retail sites,through auction or music sites, to business exchanges trading good and services between corporations. It is one of the most important aspects of the Internet to emerge . E-commerce allows consumers to electronically exchange goods and service with no barriers of time or distance. These business transactions occur business to business , business to consumer, consumer to consumer or consumer to business . The terms E-commerce and E-business are often used interchangeably .

                        

                               Types of E-commerce 

• Business to Business commerce (B2B)
• Collaborative commerce ( c-commerce)
• Business to consumer (B2C)
• Consumer to Business (C2B)
• Consumers to Consumer (C2C)
• Intra business (intra organization ) commerce
• Government to Citizens (G2C) and to others
• Mobile commerce (m-commerce)